← All research
Frontier
Research Brief 03: What It Costs to Get a Small Prospecting Spacecraft to Deep Space in 2026–2030
Frontier (thefrontier.space) — Research Programme Date: 2026-10-29 Status: Published, v1.0 Scope: Published and reported prices for launching a 50–200 kg spacecraft in 2026, the routes from a shared launch to an Earth-escape trajectory, realistic mass and delta-v budgets for reaching a low-delta-v near-Earth asteroid (NEA), how far ahead a slot must be booked, and a low/likely/high cost table for Frontier's planning.
1. Executive summary
Launch used to be the cost that made asteroid missions impossible for anyone but governments. In 2026 it is a few million dollars, and the real constraint is that almost nobody sells a ride to Earth escape off the shelf. Rideshare prices are published for sun-synchronous orbit only; everything beyond is "by inquiry". The findings:
- The published benchmark is $7,000/kg. SpaceX's Falcon 9 rideshare programme advertises $350,000 for up to 50 kg to sun-synchronous orbit (SSO), then $7,000 per additional kilogram, for 2026 missions; 200 kg is $1.4 million [1][2]. The price has risen from $5,000/kg in 2019 to $5,500, then $6,500 in 2023, then $7,000 [1][3][4]. Karman+'s CEO says SpaceX "raises their prices by 10% every year" [5]. Mid-inclination (Bandwagon), GTO and trans-lunar (TLI) slots exist but are not priced publicly [1].
- The cheapest demonstrated route to deep space is a secondary slot on a commercial lunar lander launch. AstroForge's 120 kg Odin flew as a secondary on Intuitive Machines' IM-2 Falcon 9 in February 2025; the whole mission was reported at under $7 million including launch, with $3.5 million for the spacecraft, which bounds the launch share at roughly $3.5 million [5][6][7]. Its 200 kg successor is booked on IM-3, now late 2026 or early 2027, for a mission priced under $10.5 million including launch [8][9].
- The cheapest dedicated deep-space launch is Electron plus Photon at about $10 million. NASA paid Rocket Lab $9.95 million (firm fixed price, 2020) to send the 25 kg CAPSTONE cubesat to lunar transfer orbit [10]; Rocket Lab's CEO has framed Photon missions as "$10–20 million" for "interplanetary and lunar" science [11]. Electron launches averaged about $9.2 million in revenue in the first half of 2026 [12].
- Tugs are not yet a priced product for escape. Impulse Space's Mira gives 850 m/s to a 100 kg payload but only government contract values ($28–31 million, bundled with payloads) are public [13][14]; Helios (LEO to GEO, 5,000 kg) has no public price [15]; Exotrail's old published rate was €120k per 6U [16]; Momentus and D-Orbit publish no prices [17].
- Physics is kind to this mission class. From a GTO drop-off, Earth escape costs just 770 m/s if burned at perigee [18]. NASA's Launch Services Program has shown that a solid kick stage giving 1,800 m/s can send four 35 kg spacecraft from one GTO rideshare to four different NEA flybys [19]. For rendezvous with the most accessible targets in Brief 01, a 100–200 kg spacecraft with electric propulsion needs roughly 1.5–3.5 km/s after drop-off, which is 15–20% of its mass in xenon (section 4).
- Cost envelope. For a 100–200 kg spacecraft, launch plus transfer to an escape trajectory is about $3 million (low), $5–8 million (likely), $15–20 million (high) depending on route (section 6). This is consistent with AstroForge's sub-$10.5 million all-in missions [8] and with Brief 01's $10–20 million mission envelope.
- Book 18–24 months ahead, and expect the primary to slip. Odin had to be delivered 35 days before launch [20]; IM-3 has slipped about a year [9]; Transporter flights go roughly every 2–3 months [21], and SpaceX credits 100% of payments to a later flight minus a 5–10% rebooking fee if you miss yours [1].
2. Published and reported prices, 2026
Most launch providers do not publish price lists [22]. What follows separates stated prices from reported contract values and third-party estimates.
2.1 SpaceX Falcon 9 rideshare (Transporter and Bandwagon)
| Item | Value | Status | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base price, SSO | $350,000 for up to 50 kg | Advertised, 2026 missions | [1][2] |
| Additional mass, SSO | $7,000/kg (100 kg $700k; 200 kg $1.4M; 500 kg $3.5M) | Advertised | [1] |
| Mid-inclination (Bandwagon, from Cape Canaveral) | By inquiry | No published card | [1][21] |
| GTO and TLI | Listed as options, by inquiry | No published card | [1] |
| Not included | Dispensers/separation systems, payload processing, shipping, insurance, rebooking, post-separation orbit changes | [1] | |
| Rebooking | 100% of monies paid credited to a future mission, less 5–10% fee | [1] | |
| Cadence | Transporter-17 flew 7 July 2026 with 81 payloads; Transporter-18 (45 customer satellites) and Bandwagon-5 (23) both NET October 2026 | [23][24] | |
| Price history | $1M for 200 kg ($5,000/kg) in 2019; $5,500/kg; $6,500/kg from March 2023; $7,000/kg 2026 | [3][4][1] |
The Falcon 9 dedicated list price is reported at $74 million for 2026 by a secondary source [25]; SpaceX's own capabilities document was not retrievable by us. One budgeting rule of thumb from an industry analysis is that an all-in small-satellite launch cost is often 1.5–2× the raw rideshare price once integration, dispensers and testing are included [26].
2.2 Rocket Lab Electron, Photon and Neutron
| Item | Value | Status | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Electron dedicated | ~$7.5 million for ~300 kg to LEO (aggregator figure); ~$9.2 million average revenue per launch, H1 2026 | No list price published | [12][27] |
| Electron + Lunar Photon (CAPSTONE) | $9.95 million, firm fixed price, awarded Feb 2020; launched to lunar transfer 2022 | NASA contract | [10][28] |
| Photon interplanetary/lunar missions | "$10–20 million" per CEO Peter Beck, versus "$50–100 million" historically | Stated target | [11] |
| Neutron | $50–55 million working figure; ~13,000 kg to LEO; first flight not yet achieved as of Sept 2026 | Reported, unannounced | [29][30] |
Electron cannot reach escape on its own; the CAPSTONE and Venus-probe architectures use Photon as a kick stage, with a lunar flyby for the Venus case [11][28].
2.3 ESA / Arianespace / Avio
No rideshare price list is published for Ariane 6 or Vega-C [31]. Reported dedicated launch costs: Vega-C €48 million (2022) [32]; Ariane 62 about €100 million (2024 estimate) [33]. Neither is a realistic option for a Frontier-scale budget except as a rideshare, and no European rideshare price is public (unknown).
2.4 ISRO / NSIL
No published rate card [22]. Reported figures: PSLV launch cost ₹130–200 crore [34]; SSLV ₹30–35 crore (US$3.1–3.6 million) expected, for about 500 kg to LEO [35]. Using the same source's rupee-to-dollar ratio, PSLV is roughly $13–21 million (our conversion). SSLV is LEO-only and would need a Frontier-supplied escape stage.
2.5 Lunar rideshares and landers
| Provider | What is sold | Price | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intuitive Machines (IM-2, IM-3) | Secondary slot on Falcon 9 lunar launch; Spaceflight's Sherpa-ES and AstroForge's Odin flew on IM-2 | Not published; bounded by Odin ≤ ~$3.5M (section 1) | [6][7][36] |
| Intuitive Machines (ESA BSGN listing) | Lunar transfer orbit delivery up to 1,000 kg | "Price upon request" | [37] |
| Astrobotic (Peregrine guide, 2018) | $300,000/kg lunar orbit drop; $1.2M/kg lunar surface | Dated, likely superseded | [38] |
| ispace via Starship shared flight | $100,000/kg to lunar surface target; 500 kg bought for $50M; NET 2030 | Target, tied to commissioning | [39] |
A TLI drop-off is close to Earth escape energetically (C3 ≈ −2 km²/s² versus 0), which is why AstroForge chose this route twice [6][8].
2.6 Orbital transfer vehicles ("tugs")
| Vehicle | Capability | Price | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Impulse Space Mira | Up to 850 m/s for a 100 kg payload; 3 LEO Express flights flown; LEO Express 4 on Bandwagon-5 | Government: $28M (Space Force, 2029 mission) / up to $31.2M; no commercial list price | [13][14][40] |
| Impulse Space Helios | LEO to GEO, up to ~5,000 kg, under a day; first launch targeted mid-2026, then 2027; carries Mira to GTO for Victus Surgo | Not public | [15][41][42] |
| Exotrail SpaceVan | GEO version: 150 kg from GTO to GEO in under six months | €120k per 6U (old page, LEO rideshare) | [16] |
| Momentus Vigoride | Flew 10 payloads on Transporter-16; single-use design | Not public | [17][43] |
| D-Orbit ION | Rides as payload, releases sub-payloads at custom orbits | Not public | [17] |
None of these advertises an escape-trajectory service. The relevant precedent is Impulse carrying its own Mira to GTO on Helios, which shows the layered architecture (rideshare → tug → spacecraft's own propulsion) is being built [42].
3. Routes to an escape trajectory
For a 50–200 kg spacecraft there are five realistic routes. Ordered by what they cost Frontier in money and in delta-v:
- Secondary on a lunar lander launch (TLI drop-off). Lowest delta-v left to the spacecraft; price negotiated; schedule entirely at the mercy of the primary. AstroForge's route [6][8].
- GTO rideshare plus own propulsion or a kick stage. GTO slots are offered by inquiry [1]; 770 m/s at perigee gives escape [18]; NASA LSP has shown a solid kick stage on an ESPA ring can deliver 1,800 m/s to a 35 kg spacecraft and reach dozens of NEA flyby targets from a single GTO launch [19].
- Dedicated Electron + Photon. About $10 million, proven to lunar transfer and (in design) to Venus [10][11][28].
- SSO/mid-inclination rideshare plus a tug. Cheapest ticket ($0.35–1.4 million) [1], but the tug must supply ~3.2 km/s to escape from LEO, which no tug currently advertises; Mira's 850 m/s is far short [13].
- Dedicated small launcher with its own upper stage (PSLV, Vega-C). $13–50 million; not justified for one 200 kg spacecraft [32][34].
Routes 1–3 are the serious candidates. Route 2 is the one Frontier can control best, because GTO rideshares fly on nearly every commercial GEO satellite launch and the kick-stage study found "almost daily launch opportunities" to some NEA [19].
4. Mass and delta-v budget for a 50–200 kg spacecraft
4.1 Delta-v after drop-off
| Leg | Delta-v | Basis |
|---|---|---|
| GTO perigee to Earth escape (C3 = 0) | 0.77 km/s | Woolley 2022 [18] |
| Escape to heliocentric transfer and rendezvous with a low-Δv NEA | 0.4–2.5 km/s | 437 m/s one-way for NEAs within ~0.03 au of Earth's orbit [44]; NHATS round-trip totals of 3.55 km/s (2000 SG344) and 6.05 km/s (Apophis) from LEO, which include the Earth-departure burn [45]; 1.8 km/s from GTO covers many flyby targets [19] |
| Proximity operations, navigation clean-up, margin | 0.2–0.3 km/s | Kick-stage trajectory clean-up was tens of m/s [19]; margin is ours |
| Total from GTO drop-off | ≈ 1.4–3.6 km/s | Frontier estimate |
| Total from TLI drop-off | ≈ 0.6–2.8 km/s | Subtract most of the escape leg |
These are one-way rendezvous figures assembled from the sources above; Brief 01 open question 3 (a proper one-way, low-thrust trajectory study) still stands.
4.2 Propellant mass
Using the rocket equation with the Busek BIT-3 as a representative small ion thruster (specific impulse up to 2,150–2,300 s, 65–80 W) [46][47]:
| Δv required | Isp 2,150 s (electric) | Solid kick stage (NASA LSP concept) |
|---|---|---|
| 1.5 km/s | 6.9% of wet mass (7 kg on 100 kg) | 1,800 m/s capacity for a 35 kg payload [19] |
| 3.6 km/s | 15.7% of wet mass (16 kg on 100 kg; 31 kg on 200 kg) | Would need a larger motor or two stages |
AstroForge's DeepSpace-2 carries 60 kg of xenon on a 200 kg bus [48]; at Isp 1,500–2,150 s that is 5.2–7.5 km/s of capability (our arithmetic), comfortably above the budget here. Electric propulsion's penalty is time and power: the BIT-3 draws 65–80 W [47]; a 1.7 kW bus like DeepSpace-2 [49] could run a thruster an order of magnitude larger. Chemical propulsion for the same 3.6 km/s would consume well over half the spacecraft, which is why every private asteroid mission after Odin has gone electric [49].
4.3 Mass envelope
| Spacecraft class | Rideshare cost at SSO rate (reference) | Fits an ESPA port? | Precedents |
|---|---|---|---|
| 50 kg | $350,000 | Yes | Janus (35 kg × 2, de-manifested from Psyche) [19] |
| 100–120 kg | $700,000–840,000 | Yes | Odin, 120 kg [49] |
| 200 kg | $1.4 million | Yes (ESPA-class) | DeepSpace-2, 200 kg [48] |
5. Timelines and booking
- Lead time. Transporter missions fly roughly every 2–3 months, which lets customers plan around predictable windows [21]; GTO and TLI slots depend on a primary. AstroForge had to deliver Odin 35 days before launch [20]. We could not find a formal published booking-to-launch lead time (unknown); contracting 18–24 months ahead is our recommendation based on the IM-3 slip.
- Slips. Odin's follow-on moved from "as soon as early 2026" [5] to late 2026 or early 2027 [9]. Karman+'s first launch moved from 2026 to 2027 and then to mid-2028 with a 2030 Apophis rendezvous [50][51]. Impulse's Helios moved from mid-2026 to 2027 [41][42].
- Rebooking terms. SpaceX credits 100% of payments to a future mission less a 5–10% fee [1].
- Schedule leverage. AstroForge's CEO on IM-2: "we're either on IM-2 or we're not a company" [5]. A single-primary dependency is a business risk, not just a schedule risk; Frontier should hold a GTO rideshare option as a fallback to any lunar secondary slot.
6. Cost table
For a 100–200 kg Frontier prospector, launch and transfer to an escape trajectory, spacecraft excluded. "Likely" is our judgement; "basis" lists the cited anchors.
| Route | Low | Likely | High | Basis |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A. Secondary on lunar lander launch (TLI) | $2M | $3–4M | $6M | Odin ≤ ~$3.5M launch share within sub-$7M mission [5][6][7]; prices unpublished |
| B. GTO rideshare + own electric propulsion | $1.5M | $3M | $5M | SSO rate $0.7–1.4M for 100–200 kg [1]; GTO by inquiry; plus dispenser/integration 1.5–2× [26] |
| C. GTO rideshare + solid kick stage (ESPA) | $3M | $5–6M | $10M | Route B plus kick stage; NASA LSP concept, no commercial price [19] |
| D. Dedicated Electron + Photon | $10M | $12–15M | $20M | CAPSTONE $9.95M (2020) [10]; Beck "$10–20M" [11]; Electron ~$9.2M average [12] |
| E. SSO rideshare + commercial tug | $2M | unknown | $30M+ | No tug sells escape; Mira government missions $28–31M [13][14] |
| F. Dedicated PSLV / Vega-C | $13M | $20M | €48M | ₹130–200 crore [34]; €48M [32] |
| Planning figure (routes A–C) | $3M | $5–8M | $15–20M | Consistent with AstroForge sub-$10.5M all-in [8] |
Excluded: spacecraft, ground segment, operations, insurance, and the deep-space network time that Odin found scarce [49]. Brief 01's $10–20 million whole-mission envelope leaves $5–15 million for everything else if launch comes in at the likely figure.
7. Open questions
- What does SpaceX actually quote for GTO and TLI rideshare? Published only as "by inquiry" [1]. Frontier should request a quote for a 200 kg ESPA-class payload in 2028–2029 as the single most valuable data point.
- What did AstroForge pay Intuitive Machines? Not disclosed in any source we found [5][6][7]; only bounded by the sub-$7 million total.
- Will any tug sell an escape service by 2028? Impulse's Helios-to-GTO plus Mira architecture is the closest [42]; no price or escape capability has been announced.
- Is the NASA solid kick stage available commercially? The LSP concept re-uses a qualified missile third stage [19]; whether a private customer can buy one is unknown.
- One-way low-thrust trajectory to Apophis or 2000 SG344. Section 4 is assembled from impulsive-burn sources; a proper electric-propulsion study is needed (Brief 01, open question 3).
- Price trajectory. If the 10%/year claim [5] or the ~$500/kg/year pattern [2] holds, the SSO benchmark is ~$8,500–9,300/kg by 2029. Does GTO pricing track it?
- Starship. No rideshare price exists; the ispace $100,000/kg lunar-surface target is for 2030 at the earliest [39]. Not a planning basis for 2027–2030.
8. References
- New Space Economy, "SpaceX rideshare pricing as of February 2026: what it costs, what's included, and how buyers budget a mission," 27 Feb 2026 (cites spacex.com/rideshare; $350,000 for 50 kg; $7,000/kg; GTO/TLI by inquiry; rebooking 5–10%). https://newspaceeconomy.ca/2026/02/27/spacex-rideshare-pricing-as-of-february-2026-what-it-costs-whats-included-and-how-buyers-budget-a-mission/
- Orbital Radar, "Rocket Launch Cost: $54,000 → $3,000 per kg (2026)" ($350,000/50 kg; ~$500/kg annual increases since 2024). https://orbitalradar.com/space-economy/launch-cost-trends
- Ill-Defined Space, "Examining SpaceX's Smallsat Rideshare Program," 16 Jul 2020 ($1 million for up to 200 kg). https://illdefinedspace.substack.com/p/examining-spacex-s-smallsat-rideshare-program
- Payload, "SpaceX Increases Rideshare Prices," 1 Mar 2023 ($5,500 to $6,500/kg). https://payloadspace.com/spacex-increases-rideshare-prices/
- The Space Review, "The new wave of asteroid mining ventures," 17 Mar 2025 (Odin $3.5M; IM-3 "as soon as early 2026"; Karman+ $17M; "10% every year"; "we're either on IM-2 or we're not a company"). https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4955/1
- Wikipedia, "AstroForge" (Odin secondary on IM-2, 26 Feb 2025). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstroForge
- CNN via KVIA, "This asteroid-hunting company could make history with its first deep space mission," 25 Feb 2025 (under $7 million). https://kvia.com/cnn-other/2025/02/25/this-asteroid-hunting-company-could-make-history-with-its-first-deep-space-mission-the-ceo-is-terrified/
- Orange County Business Journal, "AstroForge prepares second asteroid mission" (under $10.5 million including launch). https://www.ocbj.com/technology/astroforge-prepares-second-asteroid-mission/
- Wikipedia, "AstroForge" (next spacecraft on IM-3, late 2026 or early 2027). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AstroForge
- Spaceflight Now, "NASA picks Rocket Lab to launch lunar CubeSat mission," 15 Feb 2020 ($9.95 million firm fixed price). https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/02/15/nasa-picks-rocket-lab-to-launch-lunar-cubesat-mission/
- Space.com, "Rocket Lab aims to launch private Venus mission in 2023" (Beck: "$10–20 million" vs "$50–100 million"; Photon lunar flyby to Venus). https://www.space.com/rocket-lab-private-venus-mission-2023.html
- SpaceNexus, "How Much Does a Rocket Launch Cost? Falcon 9: $74M (2026)" (Electron ~$9.2M average H1 2026). https://spacenexus.us/guide/space-launch-cost-comparison
- SpaceNews, "Space Force orders another Mira vehicle from Impulse Space for surveillance mission" (up to $31.2M; 850 m/s for 100 kg). https://spacenews.com/space-force-orders-another-mira-vehicle-from-impulse-space-for-surveillance-mission/
- Impulse Space, "Impulse Space Awarded $28M for Future Space Force SDA Mission" (NET 2029). https://www.impulsespace.com/updates/impulse-space-awarded-usd28m-for-future-space-force-sda-mission
- Impulse Space, "Impulse Space Secures Three SpaceX Falcon 9 Missions" (Helios ~5,000 kg LEO to GEO). https://impulsespace.com/updates/impulse-space-secures-three-spacex-falcon-9-missions
- Factories in Space, "Exotrail" (€120k per 6U; GEO SpaceVan 150 kg GTO to GEO). https://www.factoriesinspace.com/exotrail
- New Space Economy, "Satellite ridesharing market analysis 2026" (integrators and OTVs; Vigoride on Transporter-16). https://newspaceeconomy.ca/2026/02/27/satellite-ridesharing-market-analysis-2026/
- Woolley, R. et al. (2022), SSC22-P1-03, 36th Small Satellite Conference (ΔV from GTO perigee to escape 770 m/s). https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=0&article=5416&context=smallsat&type=additional
- Benson, W. W., NASA Launch Services Program, "Enabling Multiple Small Satellite Near-Earth Asteroid Flyby Missions Using Small Solid Rocket Kick Stages with Rideshare Opportunities" (1,800 m/s for 35 kg; four spacecraft per GTO launch; Janus). https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230016870/downloads/Smallsat%20Kickstage%20Concept%20Paper%20Final.pdf
- Yahoo News, "Space mining company AstroForge identifies asteroid target for Odin launch next month" (delivery 35 days before launch). https://www.yahoo.com/news/space-mining-company-astroforge-identifies-150000760.html
- MEXC, "SpaceX Rideshare: The Cheapest Ticket to Orbit for Small Satellites" (Bandwagon mid-inclination from Cape Canaveral; cadence every 2–3 months). https://www.mexc.com/crypto-pulse/article/spacex-rideshare-120111
- Orbital Intel, "How Much Does It Cost to Launch a Satellite in 2026?" (most operators publish no price lists; ISRO/NSIL "not published"). https://www.orbitalintel.org/satellites/how-much-does-it-cost-to-launch-a-satellite/
- Space.com, "SpaceX launches 81 satellites to orbit from California" (Transporter-17, 7 Jul 2026). https://www.space.com/space-exploration/launches-spacecraft/spacex-falcon-9-transporter-17-rideshare-launch-81-satellites
- Exolaunch, news release, 25 Aug 2026 (Transporter-18 45 satellites; Bandwagon-5 23 satellites; NET October 2026). https://exolaunch.com/news_157
- KeepTrack, "How Much Does a Falcon 9 Launch Cost? $74 Million List Price in 2026." https://keeptrack.space/deep-dive/how-much-does-a-falcon-9-launch-cost
- SpaceNexus, "Cost Per Kilogram to Orbit 2026" (1.5–2× budgeting rule). https://spacenexus.us/blog/economics-satellite-launch-cost-per-kilogram
- Orbital Radar, "Electron: 88 Launches, Specs, Payload & Price" (~$7.5M, ~300 kg). https://orbitalradar.com/launch-vehicles/electron
- Rocket Lab, "CAPSTONE Moon Mission" (Lunar Photon, HyperCurie, first beyond-LEO launch). https://rocketlabcorp.com/missions/lunar/
- The Motley Fool, "Rocket Lab Sold Kepler a Dedicated Neutron Flight," 30 Sep 2026 ($50–55M working figure; first launch slipped). https://www.fool.com/investing/2026/09/30/rocket-lab-sold-kepler-a-dedicated-neutron-flight/
- Wikipedia, "Rocket Lab Neutron" (~13,000 kg to LEO). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Lab_Neutron
- eoPortal, "ESA Space Transportation Program (Ariane 6, Vega-C)" (SSMS dispenser for satellites below 500 kg; no pricing). https://www.eoportal.org/ftp/satellite-missions/a/Ariane6_140222/Ariane6.html
- Wikipedia, "Vega C" (€48 million, 2022). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_C
- Wikipedia, "Ariane 6" (A62 ~€100 million, 2024). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_6
- Wikipedia, "Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle" (₹130–200 crore). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_Satellite_Launch_Vehicle
- Wikipedia, "Small Satellite Launch Vehicle" (₹30–35 crore, US$3.1–3.6 million; 375–525 kg). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Satellite_Launch_Vehicle
- NASASpaceFlight, "Spaceflight Inc announces rideshare mission to the moon and geostationary orbit," Sep 2021 (Sherpa-ES on IM-2). https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/09/spaceflight-inc-rideshare-moon-geostationary/
- ESA BSGN, "Lunar Payload Delivery Service" (Intuitive Machines lunar transfer orbit up to 1,000 kg; price upon request). https://bsgn.esa.int/service/lunar-payload-delivery-service/
- Astrobotic, "Peregrine Lunar Lander Payload User's Guide v3.0," Oct 2018 ($1.2M/kg surface; $300,000/kg lunar orbit). https://explorers.larc.nasa.gov/2019APSMEX/MO/pdf_files/Astrobotic%20-%20Payload%20User%20Guide%20v3%202018-10.pdf
- Universe Magazine, "Lunar logistics moves to a shared-flight model," 9 Jul 2026 (ispace $100,000/kg target; 500 kg for $50M; Starship NET 2030). https://universemagazine.com/en/lunar-logistics-moves-to-a-shared-flight-model/
- Venture Atlas, "Impulse Space" (three LEO Express flights; LEO Express 4 on Bandwagon-5). https://www.ventureatlas.org/company/impulse-space
- Behind the Black, "Orbital tug startup Impulse Space buys three SpaceX Falcon 9 launches" (Helios inaugural launch targeted mid-2026). https://behindtheblack.com/?p=109907
- Business Wire, "Impulse Space ... VICTUS SURGO and VICTUS SALO," 4 Oct 2024 ($34.5M SBIR Phase III; Mira to GTO on Helios). https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20241004351126/en
- Factories in Space, "Impulse Space" and market notes (Vigoride single-use). https://www.factoriesinspace.com/impulse-space
- Calla, P., Fries, D. & Welch, C. (2018), "Asteroid mining with small spacecraft and its economic feasibility," arXiv:1808.05099 (437 m/s one-way for NEAs within ~0.03 au). https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.05099
- NASA CNEOS NHATS object records, 2000 SG344 (3.549 km/s) and 99942 Apophis (6.049 km/s). https://ssd-api.jpl.nasa.gov/nhats.api?des=2000%20SG344 and https://ssd-api.jpl.nasa.gov/nhats.api?des=99942
- Busek, "RF Ion Thrusters" (BIT-3 specific impulse up to 2,300 s; > 2 km/s for 6U). https://www.busek.com/rf-ion-thrusters
- NASA NTRS (2018), BIT-3 presentation (Isp 1,870 s nominal / 2,640 s max; 65–80 W; 1.5 kg dry); Busek BIT-3 datasheet v10 (up to 2,150 s). https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20190001142/downloads/20190001142.pdf and https://www.busek.com/s/BIT3_v10.pdf
- AstroForge, "DeepSpace-2" (200 kg, 60 kg xenon). https://www.astroforge.com/deepspace-2
- AstroForge, "Odin't: A Complete Debrief of Our Deep Space Mission," 6 Mar 2025 (Odin 120 kg chemical; DeepSpace-2 200 kg, 1.7 kW, electric; dish-time competition). https://www.astroforge.com/updates-collection/odint-mission-debrief
- Factories in Space, "Karman+" (launch expected 2026, later 2027). https://factoriesinspace.com/karman-plus
- Karman+, "K+ Mission 1 -> 99942 Apophis," 21 Jul 2026 (mid-2028 launch, 2030 rendezvous). https://www.karmanplus.com/k-mission-1-99942-apophis/
Additional context consulted: Tesmanian, "SpaceX modifies Rideshare Program base price" (2019-era $275,000 for 50 kg; https://www.tesmanian.com/blogs/tesmanian-blog/rideshare-update); Hibberd & Eubanks, "Preliminary Analysis into the Feasibility of Missions to Asteroid 2024 YR4" (https://arxiv.org/abs/2502.19346); Wikipedia, "Rocket Lab Electron" (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Lab_Electron); SatNews, "Impulse Space Secures $28 Million U.S. Space Force Contract" (https://satnews.com/2026/09/23/impulse-space-secures-28-million-u-s-space-force-contract-for-geostationary-space-domain-awareness-mission/); Business Wire, "SES Signs Multi Launch Agreement for Helios Transport Services," 22 May 2025 (https://secure.businesswire.com/news/home/20250522275519/en/SES-Signs-Multi-Launch-Agreement-for-Helios-Transport-Services-with-Impulse-Space).
Frontier research briefs are written to be checked. Every number above links to its source; if you find one that is wrong or out of date, tell us at https://thefrontier.space/research.